Game Theory

Gamification and Game Theory are two different things.  According to Game Theory Strategies, Gamification is a way to get the people more involved in an activity by using game play mechanics.  Additionally, rewards are given to encourage particular behaviors.  Our class, for instance, has been using gamification in order to make the lessons more engaging and easier to understand.  On the other hand, game theory is analyzing strategic situations where a person’s strategy is dependent on the choices of others (Game theory and gamification are not the same thing, n.d.).

I would like to start with just a little background on the history of game theory.  The game theory was first proposed by a Hungarian-American mathematician named John von Neumann.  The theory only existed as a unique field when he published a paper in 1928 using Brouwer’s fixed-point theorem as proof, which became the standard method in the theory.  John von Neumann then wrote a book entitled “Theory of Games and Economic Behavior” in 1944 which concluded his work on game theory.  In 1950, notable mathematicians Merrill M. Flood and Melvin Dresher framed the prisoner’s dilemma which is a standard example of the game theory.  Around that time frame, American mathematician John Forbes Nash Jr developed a principle strategy known as Nash equilibrium.  It is applicable to a wider variety of games than the principle proposed by John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenster (Game theory, n.d.).  The Nash equilibrium represents the best outcome for both players.

Game theory is used in a wide variety of disciplines, but it is mostly used in the study of economics especially in the analysis of the interaction between two or more industries.  According to Investopedia, the game theory is “the process of modeling the strategic interaction between two or more players in a situation containing set rules and outcomes”.  In other words, you study how the people react to strategic situations in game theory.  This theory is used in a situation with two or more players that involves quantifiable consequences.  For example, in the prisoner’s dilemma the quantifiable consequence is the number of years the prisoners will stay in jail (McNulty, 2008).

There are a few terms we need to know in the game theory.  The first term we need to now is game.  A game is defined as “any set of circumstances that has a result dependent on the actions of two or more players”.  In other words, a game refers to any situation where in the player’s course of action is dependent on the decisions of the other players.  The second term is players.  Players refer to the decision makers.  The third term is strategy.  A strategy is the plan of action a player will take.  The fourth term is payoff.  The word payoff refers to the outcome or consequence the player receives that is in a quantifiable form (McNulty, 2008).

It was mentioned above that the prisoner’s dilemma is a standard example of the game theory.  The prisoner’s dilemma shows how two rational individuals might not cooperate with each other, even if it is in their best interest.  Albert W. Tucker explained the games as:

Two members of a criminal gang are arrested and imprisoned. Each prisoner is in solitary confinement with no means of communicating with the other. The prosecutors lack sufficient evidence to convict the pair on the principal charge. They hope to get both sentenced to a year in prison on a lesser charge. Simultaneously, the prosecutors offer each prisoner a bargain. Each prisoner is given the opportunity either to: betray the other by testifying that the other committed the crime, or to cooperate with the other by remaining silent. (Prisoner’s dilemma, n.d.)

 

The payoffs are the following: If A and B both confess, they will both serve 2 years in prison.  If A confesses but B remains silent, A will be set free while B will serve 3 years in prison and vice versa.  If both A and B do not confess, they will both just serve only 1 year in prison (Prisoner’s dilemma, n.d.).

 

Game theory can be used to understand the political decisions of the political figures.  For example, China still continues to support North Korea up to this day.  This is because China prefers them to be in charge rather than the Americans or South Korea (Game theory and North Korea, n.d.).  This theory can also be used in the business field.  For instance, if you are given two offers, you will mostly likely go for the offer that benefits you the most.  Another example would when you are trying to cross the street.  If one person tries to cross, the rest of the people will immediately follow and the cars will stop to let the people pass.

References:

Game theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_theory

Game theory and gamification are not the same thing. (n.d.). Retrieved from Game Theory Strategies: http://www.gametheorystrategies.com/2011/07/06/game-theory-and-gamification/

Game theory and North Korea. (n.d.). Retrieved from Game Theory Strategies: http://www.gametheorystrategies.com/2013/04/08/game-theory-north-korea/

McNulty, D. (2008). The Basics Of Game Theory. Retrieved from Investopedia: http://www.investopedia.com/articles/financial-theory/08/game-theory-basics.asp

Prisoner’s dilemma. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma

 

Social Marketing Theory

The Social Marketing theory was proposed by Philip Kotler and Gerald Zaltman.  It emerged in the 1970s as a discipline.  The theory was formed when Philip Kotler and Gerald Zaltman realized that the same marketing techniques used to sell products to consumers could also be applied to sell ideas, attitudes and behavior (Weinreich, n.d.).  Philip Kotler and Gerald Zaltman were the ones who first coined the term “social marketing”.  They defined social marketing as “the design, implementation, and control of programs calculated to influence the acceptability of social ideas and involving considerations of product planning, pricing, communication, distribution, and marketing research” (Social marketing, n.d.).  According to the website communicationtheory.org, the social marketing theory is a collection of theories that focuses on how information can be socially promoted.  This theory tries to clearly understand how social and psychological factors work to increase the effectiveness of mass media information campaigns (Social Marketing Theory, n.d.).  However, the social marketing theory has encountered some criticisms because it is more like a set of principles rather than a theory (Meischke, n.d.).

Now, the Social Marketing theory has a total of six features.  The first feature is creating audience awareness.  Awareness is created by using all available means such as the news media and the Internet.  The second feature is targeting the right audience.  It is very important that you identify your target audience.  If your target audience is the younger generation, you have to take into consideration their choice of medium in order to choose the most efficient medium to reach them. For example, since the younger generation are more technologically inclined they do not really read the newspaper.  Instead, they get their news from the Internet.  Hence, using the newspaper as a means of reaching them is not very efficient at all.  The third feature is to reinforce the message.  People tend to forget things easily.  Therefore, in order to send your message across, it is important that you reinforce it so that the people will remember it.  This can be done by using different channels such as going door to door, promoting in various mass media, television ads and many more.  An example of this would be the commercials shown during the television breaks.  Sometimes, the same commercial may even be played successively for three times.  The fourth feature is to cultivate images or impressions.  Normally, if your audience is not interested in the what you are promoting, they will not seek further information about it.  In such cases, image advertising is used.  By using recognizable and easily understood images, this helps create a favorable setting for the object being promoted.  The fifth feature is to stimulate interest in your target audience.  Dramatic events or unexpected actions can really capture the interest of the audience.  Moreover, the information should be readily available to the public.  The sixth feature is to induce the desired result.  Once the message has reached the audience, an effort should still be made in order to ensure that the effect is achieved (Social Marketing Theory, n.d.).

According the website social-marketing.com, “Social marketing seeks to influence social behaviors not to benefit the marketer, but to benefit the target audience and the general society” (Weinreich, n.d.).  In other words, social marketing is done in order to promote something that the community will benefit in.  It was Craig Lefebvre and June Flora who introduced social marketing to the public health community in 1988.  Since then, it has been widely used and explored in that field (Social marketing, n.d.).  Social marketing is used to promote both tangible and nontangible among a particular target group (Social Marketing Theory, n.d.).  The first ever documented evidence of social marketing came from a 1963 reproductive health program led by K. T. Chandy.  They were planning to implement a national family planning (Social marketing, n.d.).  In the United States, National High Blood Pressure Education Programs and Stanford University was able to effectively show the risk of cardiovascular problems in 1980s using the concept of social marketing.  Similar to this, Victoria Cancer Council of Australia used social marketing in 1988 to conduct an anti-tobacco campaign (Social Marketing Theory, n.d.).  A more recent example would be the awareness videos created by AJ+ you see around in Facebook.

 

References:

Meischke, H. (n.d.). Social Marketing Theory. Retrieved from Scribd: https://www.scribd.com/doc/2600124/Social-Marketing-Theory

Social marketing. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_marketing

Social Marketing Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from Communication Theory: http://communicationtheory.org/social-marketing-theory/

Social Marketing Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from Businesstopia: https://www.businesstopia.net/mass-communication/social-marketing-theory

Weinreich, N. K. (n.d.). What is Social Marketing? Retrieved from Weinreich Communications: http://www.social-marketing.com/whatis.html

Knowledge Gap

The Knowledge Gap theory was first proposed by three researchers in the University of Minnesota in 1970: Philip J. Tichenor, the Associate Professor of Journalism and Mass Communication at the time, George A. Donohue, Professor of Sociology, and Clarice N. Olien, Instructor in Sociology  (Knowledge gap hypothesis, n.d.).  According to this theory, as the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases, the individuals belonging to the higher socioeconomic status have the tendency to acquire the said information faster than the individuals belonging to the lower socioeconomic status (Knowledge Gap Theory, n.d.).  Because of this fact, the gap in knowledge between the two division tends to increase rather than decrease (Knowledge gap hypothesis, n.d.).  In simpler words, the individuals who belong to the higher economic sector, also referred to as the rich, have more access to mass media and are able to gain information faster than compared to the individuals who belong to the lower economic sector.  This is because as society becomes more technologically advance, the expense for it rises and it goes out of league of the poor.  As a result, the knowledge gap widens between the two sectors and the higher economic sector gain more benefits (Knowledge Gap Theory, n.d.).

Tichenor, Donohue and Olien also believe that the increase of information is not evenly distributed to every member of the society (Knowledge Gap Theory, n.d.).  This in turn results to society divided into two groups: a group of well-educated individuals who know more about things and a group of less-educated individuals who know less (Knowledge Gap, n.d.).  If this continues, the gap will only increase over the years.

The three researchers presented five reasons to justify the Knowledge Gap theory.  The first reason is based on communications skills.  As an individual receives more education, his or her communication skill also increases. Therefore, gathering information becomes easier for the individual.  Furthermore, his or her reading and comprehension skills will also improve.  This in turn will help him or her understand things better. The second reason is based on stored information.  An educated individual is more exposed to more topics than compared to a less educated individual.  This is because the former has access to classrooms, textbooks and discussions.  The third reason is based on relevant social contact.  A well-educated has more social integration which will help him understand public issues better.  The fourth reason is based on selective exposure.  Individuals belonging to higher socioeconomic status are better in selective exposure, acceptance and retention.  The fifth reason is based on the target market of the media.  By nature, mass media is actually geared towards individuals belonging to higher socioeconomic status (Knowledge Gap Theory, n.d.).

By mid-1970s, extensive data supported the existence of a knowledge gap.  Donohue, Tichenor and Olien sought to further refined the theory and determine the conditions that might eliminate the knowledge gap.  The three researchers gathered and examined survey data on local and national issues from probability samples of sixteen Minnesota communities between 1969 and 1975.  They were able to identify three variables that weakened the knowledge gap theory.  The first variable identified was the level of basic social concerned aroused by the issue.  Local issues that directly concerned the community tended to gather a much greater social concern than compared to national issues that did not implicate the community.  Therefore, local issues tended to decrease the extent of the knowledge gap.  The second variable they identified was the level of social conflict surrounding the issue.  Issues with more perceive conflict tended to gather more attention. Hence, it decreased the gap between the two sectors.  The third variable was the level of homogeneity of the community.  Smaller and more homogenous communities exhibit less social differentiation and variety in sources of information than compared to more heterogeneous communities (Knowledge gap hypothesis, n.d.).

The gap of knowledge can be decreased though media.  Mass media can help reach out to a lot of people including those who have not been reached out by other means.   For example, the show Sesame Street combined entertainment and information and is geared towards preschoolers (Lahore, 2013).  Facebook is also a good source of information.  Nowadays, there are a lot of educational and awareness videos going around Facebook.

 

References:

Knowledge Gap. (n.d.). Retrieved from University of Twente: https://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20Clusters/Media,%20Culture%20and%20Society/knowledge_gap/

Knowledge gap hypothesis. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_gap_hypothesis

Knowledge Gap Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from Communication Theory: http://communicationtheory.org/knowledge-gap-theory/

Lahore, P. U. (2013, February 25). Knowledge gap theory. Retrieved from SlideShare: http://www.slideshare.net/SaimaSam/knowledge-gap-theory

 

 

Spiral of Silence

The spiral of science theory was proposed by a German political scientist named Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann in 1974.  She introduced the spiral of silence theory to try to explain how the public opinion is formed.  Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann was curious as to why the Germans supported wrong political positions in the 1930s – 1940s which led to national defeat and ruin (SPIRAL OF SILENCE, n.d.).  Through this theory, Noelle-Neumann was able to indirectly explain the status of the Jews during the World War II.  Adolf Hitler, the leader of the Nazi Party, dominated the society at that time and the Jews who were the minority became silent because of the fear of isolation (Minyard, 2013).  According to the theory, some people have the predisposition to remain silent when their views or opinions are different from the majority.  One of the main reasons as to why individuals remain silent instead of voicing out their thoughts is because they fear that they will be isolated by society.  Furthermore, they are afraid that it will bring a negative consequence that is beyond isolation (Davie, n.d.).

Now, media plays an important factor between both the opinion of the majority, which is the dominant idea, and people’s perception of the said opinion.  To support her theory, Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann considered the agenda-setting theory when she was working of media’s effect on the public opinion (Spiral of silence, n.d.).  The agenda-setting theory describes the relationship between media and the public opinion.  In this theory, the media can affect the way the people perceive reality.  The effects mass media has on public opinion and the perception of the said opinion are very vital to the spiral of silence theory (Spiral of silence, n.d.).

The conceptual model of this theory is based on three foundations. First, people have a sixth sense which permits them to know the dominant public opinion.  In other words, it comes naturally to the people.  Second, people have a fear of isolation.  Additionally, they know and understand the kinds of behavior that will increases the likelihood of isolation from society.  Third, people are restrained when they express views or opinions that are different from the prevailing opinion of the majority.  This is because they fear being isolated by society (SPIRAL OF SILENCE, n.d.).  As you can see here, there is a link between the public opinion and an individual’s personal opinion.  The farther the distance between them, the more unlikely the individual will express their opinion.  When an individual shares the same opinion as the majority, he or she is more willing to disclose that opinion in public.  However, once the public opinion changes, the said individual is less likely to openly express that opinion (The Spiral of Silence, n.d.).  Also, people feel more comfortable in agreeing with opinions that they know are wrong instead of telling others their own opinions (Spiral of silence, n.d.).

The spiral of silence is created or reinforced when an individual, who believes in the opinion of the majority, openly supports the said opinion (Davie, n.d.).  This in turn makes the minority uncomfortable to voice out their opinion because of the fear of isolation.  For example, person A is hanging out with a new group of friends and they decided to order pizza.  One person in the group asks if they wanted Hawaiian pizza and the majority agreed.  Person A decides to agree even though he wanted Peperoni pizza because person A wanted to be become a part of the group.  Another example can be seen in a movie scene called “The 40-year-old Virgin”.  There is a scene in the movie where the main character was trying very hard to fit in the group.  It led to him making up stuff just so he could fit in the group.  However, in the end, his lies were exposed.  As you can see, the main character desperately tried to fit in which lead to him making up lies.  Another example would be if the owner of the company changed the employee work hours.  Most of the employees accepted while a handful did not.  However, the handful of employees did not voice out their opinions because they fear that the other employees would not agree.  Furthermore, they fear that by voicing out their opinions there might be repercussion from doing so.

 

References:

Davie, G. (n.d.). Spiral of Silence. Retrieved from Mass Communication Theory: https://masscommtheory.com/theory-overviews/spiral-of-silence/

Minyard, S. (2013, March 7). Spiral of Silence Theory. Retrieved from Prezi: https://prezi.com/t3xmtdqrmiyw/spiral-of-silence-theory/

Spiral of silence. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral_of_silence#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheufele2007-1

SPIRAL OF SILENCE. (n.d.). Retrieved from University of Twente: https://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20Clusters/Mass%20Media/spiral_of_silence/

Spiral of Silence Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from MASS COMMUNICATION CONTEXT: http://www.uky.edu/~drlane/capstone/mass/spiral.htm

The Spiral of Silence. (n.d.). Retrieved from cmm: http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/theory/spiral.html

 

 

Muted Group Theory

In our society, there will always be a group prevailing over the rest. The muted group theory describes the relationship established by language between the dominant group and the other subordinating groups.  Since the dominant group contributes the most in the foundation of the language system, they have the power to dictate how the system will go.  Therefore, the subordinating groups will have to learn the language dictated by the dominant group.  As we all know, sometimes there is no direct translation for a specific word.  And so, the translation process may result to loss and distortion of information.  Hence, the people of the subordinating groups may find it hard to express their ideas clearly and their voices may be ignored by the dominant group (Muted group theory, n.d.).

There are three main ideas that are centralized in muted group theory.  First, men and women perceive the world differently.  This is due to different experiences caused by the division of labor.  Second, women have a difficult time expressing their ideas because the male point of view is more dominant.  Third, women have to go through a translation process in order to participate in social life (Muted group theory, n.d.).  This theory was developed by a British social anthropologist named Edwin Ardener together with his wife named Shirley Ardener in 1975.  It was first conceptualized in one of Edwin Ardener’s short essay entitled “Belief and Problem of Women” where Ardener talks about the problems of women.  Ardener mentions that the individuals trained in ethnography are biased towards the kinds of model that men are ready to provide rather than towards any women that may provide.  He conducted an experiment and the results showed that the male point of view was the norm.  On the other hand, the female point of view was considered the non-dominant one and fell under the muted group.  According to Edwin Ardener, certain groups get muted or silenced and are not able to fully incorporate their experiences in the society because the understanding of society is based on the dominant group (Muted group theory, n.d.).

How does the muting process work?  According to Gerdrin, muting or silencing is a social phenomenon based on the understanding that there are dominant and non-dominant groups.  It is a socially shared understanding of who is in power and who is not (Muted group theory, n.d.).  Although it was first developed in the field on cultural anthropology, other fields such as communications, feminist and cross-cultural studies have also adopted the theory.  In communications, Cheris Kramarae said that “the language of a particular culture does not serve all its speakers equally, for not all speakers contribute in an equal fashion to its formulation” (Muted group theory, n.d.).  Women, as well as other non-dominant groups, are not as free as men because the norms of society have been formulated by the dominant group.  Women have been silenced in many ways such as being mansplained and being ridiculed.  Cheris Kramarae said that women lacked influenced on mass media and are often misrepresented in history.  This is due to the fact that in the field of mass media, women have been pushed out of publishing business until 1970 (Muted group theory, n.d.).  It is only recently that we see a surge in women taking higher positions especially in business.  In the subject of ethnical minority, an example would be discrimination based on skin colour.  In the United States of America, African-Americans have been suppressed by the White Americans more so during the colonial era.  Even up to now there are still traces of discrimination around the world.  Another example would women being stereotyped in mass media and popular culture.  Most of the times, women are portrayed as sex symbols in advertisements for male products.  Therefore, the male perspective of women has been narrowed down to a sexual symbol (Muted Group Theory, n.d.).

Edwin Ardener’s concept does not only apply to women but it can also be applied to non-dominant groups within the society such as the ethnic minority and the marginalized groups.  This theory can be applied to further understand the difficulties of marginalized groups (Muted Group Theory, n.d.).  Though social awareness, the perception of dominance can be changed.

References:

Muted group theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muted_group_theory

Muted Group Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from cmm: http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/theory/mutedgrp.html

Muted Group Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from Communication Theory: http://communicationtheory.org/muted-group-theory/

 

 

Cultivation Theory

The television was invented in the late 19th Century and early 20th century (History of television, n.d.).  Just like the Internet, it is a source of information and offers bundles of ideas and conception.  Additionally, it is also a source of entertainment.  But like all other things, it also has its downside.

The Cultivation theory, also known as the cultivation hypothesis or cultivation analysis, is one of the core theories of media effects (Cultivation Theory, n.d.).  It was originally composed by George Gerbner and later expanded by both George Gerbner and Larry Gross in 1976.  He began his research in the mid-1960s to study whether the television may influence the viewers’ ideas how does it do so.  Thus, his research led him to this theory (Davie, n.d.).  According to the theory, people who frequently watch television are more susceptible to be influenced by media messages.  They are influenced to the extent that the way they view the world and their perception of it are reflecting what they see and hear on the television (Cultivation Theory, n.d.).  However, it is mentioned that not everyone is fully cultivated by the television.  This is because those who watch little television spend less time watching television when compared to the heavy viewers (Cultivation Theory, n.d.). Hence, this theory mostly affects the heavy viewers.  But either way, the television is shaping or cultivating the viewer’s conception of social reality.  Yet, the social reality it perceives may not actually reflect the reality but instead the “television reality”.  In addition to that, cultivation theorists would argue that the television has long-term effects which may be small, gradual and indirect.  However, they are cumulative and significant (Cultivation Theory, n.d.).

Now, the cultivation theory has three core assumptions.  The first assumption focuses more on the medium used.  It states that the television is fundamentally different from other forms of mass media.  This is because, unlike the newspaper or print media, it has a lower threshold for consumption.  This means that regardless of literacy or film, anyone can understand it.  Additionally, the repeating pattern of the television mass produced messages and images forms the mainstream.  According to George Gerbner, the television has become the “central cultural arm of our society”.  The second assumption focuses more on the audience.  It states that the television shapes the way individuals within a society think and relate to each other.  George Gerbner and Larry Gross wrote that what it cultivates is not so much about the specific attitudes or opinions, but rather more on the facts of life.  In simplest terms, the realities are not really base on real facts but rather on speculations.  An example would be the stereotypes we have today such as women are not as smart as men and all Asians are good at math.  I believe the stereotypes we have today is an effect the television has on us.  Nowadays, we try to change this kind of thinking.  However, there are still many who think this way.  The third and last assumption deals with the medium’s functionality on a larger audience.  It states that the effects of television are limited.  However, its effect is still consistently present (Cultivation theory, n.d.).

One of the main conclusions of the theory is the “mean world syndrome”.  It was first coined by George Gerbner himself to describe an occurrence where the violent content of mass media makes the viewers belief that the world is actually more dangerous than it looks (Mean world syndrome, n.d.).  We have seen Facebook videos and news reports where people just walk past when there is a conflict.  I also remember watching a video when a man was suddenly stabbed but no one bothered to call the ambulance.  This is because acts of violence, which you can see in programs, make the viewers de-sensitize to the violence and they become less emphatic to the suffering of others. The normalization of violence makes us more jaded to the things we see (ChallengingMedia, 2010).

This theory has been widely used in the study of violence in television.  It has been used to explain the behavior of children who became violent from watching violent shows.  As we know, repeated exposure to the television strengthens the idea that violence is the normal response to conflicts (Cultivation Theory, n.d.).

 

References:

ChallengingMedia. (2010, February 18). The Mean World Syndrome – Desensitization & Acceleration (Extra Feature). Retrieved from Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=msfu8YCCc8Q

Cultivation theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultivation_theory

Cultivation Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from Communication Theory: http://communicationtheory.org/cultivation-theory/

Cultivation Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from cmm: http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/theory/cult.html

Cultivation Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from University of Twente: https://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20Clusters/Mass%20Media/Cultivation_Theory/

Davie, G. (n.d.). Cultivation Theory. Retrieved from Mass Communication Theory: https://masscommtheory.com/theory-overviews/cultivation-theory/

History of television. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_television

Mean world syndrome. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome

Agenda-Setting

As far back as 1922, there was a newspaper columnist who was already concerned with the ability of media to present images to the public (Agenda Setting Theory, n.d.).  Agenda-setting showcases the powerful influence of the media – which is the ability to tell us which issues are important. Also known as The Agenda Setting Function of the Mass Media, agenda-setting is a theory proposed by Dr. Maxwell McCombs and Dr. Donald Shaw in 1972 in the Public Opinion Quarterly (Davie, n.d.).  Now, Dr. McCombs and Dr. Shaw focused on two elements: awareness and information.  The two of them investigated the 1968 presidential campaign and attempted to assess what the voters considered as important issues and the actual content of the media message.  They concluded that the mass media had a significant influence on what the voters considered as major issues (Agenda Setting Theory, n.d.).  In other words, the news plays a very essential part in the shaping of political realities.  This is because news media have a big influence on the audience.  The amount of time spent on an issue and the information relayed in a news determines how much a reader learns and how important the issue is.

This theory of Dr. McCombs and Dr. Shaw states that when the media reflects the candidate’s opinion during a campaign, such as the presidential campaign, they are also influencing and determining the issues of importance.  In other words, it is the media that sets the agenda for public opinion by highlighting certain issues.  Media coverage does not tell us what to think but what to think about (Jacob, 2009).  In simple terms, this theory is about how the media and the press influence the way the people think. But how exactly do they influence us?  Well, it is done through salience transfer.  Salience transfer is the ability of news media to transfer issues of importance from the news media agendas to public agendas.  Dr. Maxwell McCombs explains that “through their day-by-day selection and display of the news, editors and news directors focus our attention and influence our perceptions of what are the most important issues of the day.  This ability to influence the salience of topics on the public agenda has come to be called the agenda setting role of the news media” (Nelson, 2011).

Now, the focus of the agenda-setting theory are election campaigns and quantitative research techniques.  Additionally, it also focuses on establishing cause and effect relationship between media agenda and public agenda.  Media agenda is revealed by the position and length of the story.  On the other hand, the public agenda is revealed by what the voters consider as key issues of the campaign, regardless of what the candidates were saying (Jacob, 2009).

When analyzing this theory, there are two basic assumptions to consider.  First, the media and the press shape reality instead of reflecting on the news.  Second, the public tend to perceive those issues are more important when the media focuses on a certain issue or subject (Agenda Setting Theory, n.d.).

A clear example of agenda-setting is the Occupy Wall Street movement.  The Occupy Wall Street movement consisted of diverse group of people that were opposed to the social and economic inequality.  The said movement actually emerged in July of 2011.  However, it was left largely uncovered by the media until late September of 2011 when a YouTube footage of an activist being pepper sprayed by a New York police officer went on air.  It was only after the reveal of the footage on social media that it gained a significant presence across the country (Grzywinska).

Another example of agenda-setting was done in the Philippines during Martial Law.  Marcos knew how powerful media could be in shaping the public’s opinion.  Therefore, he resorted to censorship and buying the assets of newspaper companies.  He made use of media to blur out the anomalies done under his administration.  In addition to this, a lot more entertaining media were showcased to the public in order to sidetrack their mind in organizing rebellions and demonstrations against the government at that time (Guzman).

 

References:

Agenda Setting Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from University of Twente: https://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20Clusters/Mass%20Media/Agenda-Setting_Theory/

Davie, G. (n.d.). Agenda Setting Theory. Retrieved from Mass Communication Theory: https://masscommtheory.com/theory-overviews/agenda-setting-theory/

Grzywinska, I. (n.d.). The impact of social media on traditional media agenda setting theory – the case study of Occupy Wall Street Movement in USA. Retrieved from Academia.edu: http://www.academia.edu/7484515/The_impact_of_social_media_on_traditional_media_agenda_setting_theory._The_case_study_of_Occupy_Wall_Street_Movement_in_USA_in_B._Dobek-Ostrowska_W._Wanta_ed._Agenda_Setting_Old_and_New_Problems_in_Old_and_New_Media_Wroclaw

Guzman, P. d. (n.d.). Research on Agenda-Setting Theory. Retrieved from Academia.edu: http://www.academia.edu/979442/Research_on_Agenda-Setting_Theory

Jacob, A. (2009, November 11). Agenda Setting Theory. Retrieved from SlideShare: http://www.slideshare.net/ajacob/agenda-setting-theory?qid=bd36b179-d30b-48d6-b1ad-b4dc2407a47d&v=&b=&from_search=1

Nelson, Z. (2011, November 1). Agenda Setting Theory, the Economy, and Occupy Wall Street. Retrieved from Moderately Intersting Things: http://zacharynelson.tumblr.com/post/12227749051/agenda-setting-theory-and-ows-movement

Semiology

Semiology, also known as semiotics, is the theory of signs, their use and interpretations.  It was proposed in the early 1900s by Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss linguist, and Charles Sanders Peirce, an American pragmatist (Semiotics: the study of signs, 4).  A sign is something that has meaning and can therefore communicate information to the person decoding the sign. (Sign (semiotics), n.d.)

There are two major ideas about semiotics.  The first one is by Ferdinand de Saussure.  According to him, the sign is the whole that results from the association of the signifier with the signified.  He also said that there is no significant relationship between the signifier, which is the symbol or form, and the signified, which is the actual meaning.  The same signifier can stand for different signified depending on the context (Semiotics: the study of signs, 4).  For example, the word “open” could mean that the shop is open or that the window is open.  Another example would be the word “gift”. In English, a gift is a present.  In German, gift means poison.

The second one is by Charles Sanders Peirce.  He defined the sign as something that stands for something, to someone in some capacity.  Charles Sanders Peirce classifies signs into three categories: icon, index and symbol. The method of categorizing is based on the relationship between the sign, which he refers to as referent, and its actual meaning.  The first category is icon.  A sign is categorized as an icon when the signifier is perceived by the decoder as resembling the signified (Semiotics for Beginners, 2011).  In other words, an icon is a sign that physically resembles the actual object.  Some examples of this category are pictures, diagrams and maps.  To be more specific, a picture of a printer on your computer screen represents the print function.  The floppy disk on the top left of Microsoft Words represents the save function.  The second category is index.  An index is sign that has a factual or a causal link towards its object (Semiotics for Beginners, 2011).  It is defined by our sensory features.  For example, the sight of wet streets is a sign that it has just recently rained.  When you see smoke, it means there’s a fire nearby.  When you see steam coming out from your food, it means that it is really hot.  When the alarm on the oven rings, it means it is done cooking.  There is a correlation in space and time with its meaning.  The third category is symbol.  A symbol has an arbitrary relationship between the signifier and the signified.  The decoder understands the symbol through prior knowledge and experience (Semiotics for Beginners, 2011).  Spoken and written words are considered as symbols.  Symbols are closely associated with a number of words.  For example, when you see the flag of the United States, you may associate it with democracy, capitalism, liberty, justice, America and many more (Semiotics: the study of signs, 4).  Symbols get their meanings from mental association with other symbols and their correlation with environmental patterns.

Semiology is used in many different fields such as arts, film, mass media, design, music, theatre and many more.  Signs have become a part of our daily lives.  They are simply everywhere.  From the buttons in the elevator, the stoplight in the intersections and to the traffics signs we see on the road.  They have integrated into our society.  Every sign has meaning and some might even have multiple meanings.   This is because we, the decoders, interpret things differently from one another.  Another factor would be our society and culture differ from one another.  Normally, the colour red could be interpreted as love or war.  But in China, the colour red means luck.  Furthermore, signs also have connotative and denotative meanings.  The denotative meaning would refer to the literal meaning while the connotative meaning would be figuratively. When you see the word heart, it literally means the human heart.  But, it could also represent love or even Valentine’s day.

In Semiotics, information is not only contained in words.  Signs are universal because everyone can easily understand it.  It is not limited to visual alone.  Sounds can also be symbols.  Two examples would be the police siren and the ambulance siren.

 

References:

Semiotics. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotics

Semiotics. (2009, February 25). Retrieved from SlideShare: http://www.slideshare.net/gueste561ab/semiotics-1070205

Semiotics for Beginners. (2011, October 12). Retrieved from SlideShare: http://www.slideshare.net/MediaStudiesSaltash/semiotics-for-beginners-as-level

Sign (semiotics). (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)

Social Research Glossary. (n.d.). Retrieved from Social Research Glossary: http://www.qualityresearchinternational.com/socialresearch/semiology.htm

 

Mediamorphosis

What is Mediamorphosis?  The term “Mediamorphosis” was first coined by Roger Fidler, a well-known electronic publishing visionary and practitioner, in 1990.  Now, this theory is the exact opposite of Technological Determinism.  In Technological Determinism, we say that technology is the driving force of our society and it determines the course history takes.  In other words, technology shapes and influences our society.  The definition of Mediamorphosis, according to Roger Fidler, is that it is a unified way of thinking about the technological evolution of communication media.  By studying the communication system as a whole, we will see that new media do not arise spontaneously and independently. That is to say society is the one influencing technology and not the other way around. Another thing is that the change is gradual and is not abrupt.

Mediamorphosis has a total of six principles: Coevolution and Coexistence, Metamorphosis, Propagation, Survival, Opportunity and Need, and Delayed Adoption.

The Principle of Coevolution and Coexistence states that all communication media coevolves as an adaptive system.  They, in turn, influence all other forms of media.  In other words, An example of this principle would be the radio.  Before, you could only find a radio inside a house. Nowadays, you can find it inside your car or you could use your phone.

The Principle of Metamorphosis states that the new media emerge gradually from older forms.  Rather than dying, the media will adapt and continue to evolve.  An example of this would be the newspaper.  The newspaper has been a part of our daily lives for a very long time now.  They have undergone plenty of transformation.  Back then, newspapers were only limited because it was hard to make.  With the invention of the printing press, the numbers of print available to the public multiplied.  And once again, it has evolved to suit the Information Age.  There are now online editions of the daily news. Another example would the smartphones.  The evolution of the smartphones has come a very long way.  The very first smartphone was the IBM Simon Personal Communicator.  A prototype was introduced in 1992, but it was only released two years later.  It was a cellphone with PDA function. Then, the Ericcson R380 came. It was much better than Simon. It came a lot of organizer functions such as calendar, to-do list and many more. However, it could not take in additional apps.  A few years forward, you have the IPhone.  From bulky phones to phones thin enough to fit inside your pocket.  You could also install additional apps from the App Store. It was simply faster and much more advance.

The Principle of Propagation states that emerging media forms retain and spread dominant traits from earlier ones.  A clear example of this would be the IPad.  When the IPad was introduced, many were skeptical.  Only a few people had it.  But now, at least everyone has an IPad or a tablet.

The Principle of Survival states that older forms adapt and evolve in order to survive in the field.  A good example that would demonstrate this principle would be the magazine.  Before, magazines were catered to a specific target.  Today, we have different kinds of magazines.  We have fashion magazines such as Vogue and Elle, sports magazines such as Runner’s World and Gold Digest, photography magazines such Photo Plus and Digital Camera World, and many more.

The Principle of Opportunity and Need states that technology is just not enough.  There must be social, political, and economic reasons for new media to be developed.   An example would be the Macintosh and the PC. There was a time when the Macintosh was branded as something rich people had since the Macintosh was much more expensive than the PC.

The Principle of Delayed Adoption states that commercial success of new media always takes longer than expected.  It usually takes one human generation, which is 20-30 years, to reach widespread adoption.

 

References:

https://prezi.com/w_egzee3tfea/mediamorphosis/

http://understandingthefutur3.blogspot.com/2012/10/defined-by-its-creator-as.html

http://www.myedmedia.org/hello-world-2/

https://www.psprint.com/resources/newspaper-history/

Technological Determinism

When you hear “Technological Determinism”, what pops up into your mind? In my case, I think of the words dependency and influence.  The term “Technological Determinism” was believed to be first coined by an American sociologist and economist named Thorstein Veblen.  Technological Determinism is a reductionist theory that questions the degree to which our society is influenced by technology.  According to Marshall McLuhan, Technological Determinism states that media technology shapes how we as individuals in a society think, feel, act, and how our society operates as we move from one technological age to another.  In simpler terms, technology shapes and influences our society.  It is the driving force of the culture of society and it determines the course of history.

There are a lot of interpretations of Technological Determinism, but they all share two general ideas.  Firstly, technology follows a predictable pattern.  Secondly, the effects technology has on our society are inherent and not socially produced.  This is because when a new technology is introduced, our society adjusts to it and even strive to further develop it.

There are various examples as to why technology is considered a driving force to our society.  For example, our native ancestors used to fight using spears, swords and bows.  At that time, those was enough to win in a barangay battle.  But with the invention of gun, which the Spaniards had when they landed in the Philippines, it turned the tide.  Spears, bow, and swords were mediocre to the mighty guns of the Spaniards.  Not only did guns require minimal effort and skill, but you could attack from a distance.  Hence, we lost the arsenal battle and we were seized by the Spaniards.  Overall, the invention of the gun led a radical change in how wars were fought.  The same could also be said with the invention of the tanks and nuclear bombs used in the World War.

Another example of Technological Determinism is the invention of the mobile phone.  The history of mobile phones goes way back in 1908.  The first ever mobile phone call was made in April 3,1973 by Martin Cooper, a Motorola researcher, to Dr. Joel S. Engel of Bell Labs.  Now, the invention of the mobile phone has greatly influenced our society. Firstly, it brought people closer.  This is because they could now contact one another anytime and anywhere.  Secondly, driving became much more unsafe.  This applies more to the people of our generation.  Since people have become distracted by their phones, accidents occur much more often.  Thirdly, people have become addicted with their phones.  One time when I was eating with my family outside, I saw a very peculiar sight.  Across our table was a couple who I believe were dating.  The sight was very peculiar because they were both staring at their phones instead of talking.  It was like they had their own little world.

As you can see, each new invention caused a transition into a different age.  The discovery of the steam power led into the development of the Industrial Revolution while the invention of computers led into the Digital Age.

Technology is amazing.  We have done a lot of things with the help of technology.  Before space crafts were invented, going to the outer space was merely a dream. What was once impossible is not possible thanks to technology.  However, there is always a downside to things.  With the advancement of technology, things become much more convenient for us.  But because of that, we have become lazy and dependent on technology.

Social Networks, such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and many more, are a great way to communicate with one another.  We share photos, give shout-outs and like each other’s post.  But in the process, we lose one of the most important form of communication which is face-to-face communication.  As we become more used to interacting through social media, our social interactions with one another become less and less.  However, the blame cannot entirely be technology’s fault.  We, humans, are also to blame for becoming too dependent.

 

References:

http://www.uky.edu/~drlane/capstone/mass/determinism.htm

http://communicationtheory.org/technological-determinism/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_determinism

http://biocitizen.org/technological-determinism-what-it-is-what-we-can-do-about-it